Reference notes on Latin maxims, standing legal phrases and general legal terminology — the working vocabulary that every other subject assumes you already have.
Most writing rewards concision. Legal drafting rewards precision, and the two are not the same thing. A clause that reads awkwardly but admits only one interpretation is better than one that reads well and admits two. Much of that precision is carried by a fixed vocabulary — terms that have settled meaning, where reaching for a plain-English synonym can quietly change the legal effect.
The maxims below are not decoration. Volenti non fit injuria is a complete defence in Tort. Consensus ad idem is the definition of consent in Contract. Audi alteram partem is a ground for judicial review. Learning them here is what makes the other papers readable.
अधिकांश लेखन में संक्षिप्तता (concision) सराही जाती है; विधिक मसौदा-लेखन में परिशुद्धता (precision) — और ये दोनों एक ही चीज़ नहीं हैं। जो clause पढ़ने में भले अटपटा लगे पर जिसका केवल एक ही अर्थ निकले, वह उस clause से बेहतर है जो सुंदर पढ़ता हो पर दो अर्थ दे। यह परिशुद्धता काफ़ी हद तक एक निश्चित शब्दावली से आती है — ऐसे शब्द जिनका अर्थ स्थापित हो चुका है। उनकी जगह कोई आसान पर्याय रख देने से कभी-कभी विधिक प्रभाव चुपचाप बदल जाता है।
नीचे की सूक्तियाँ सजावट नहीं हैं। Volenti non fit injuria अपकृत्य में पूर्ण बचाव (complete defence) है। Consensus ad idem संविदा में सहमति (consent) की परिभाषा है। Audi alteram partem न्यायिक पुनर्विलोकन (judicial review) का आधार है। इन्हें यहाँ सीख लेने से बाकी प्रश्नपत्र पढ़ने योग्य बन जाते हैं।
The awkward clause with one meaning — precision beats elegance.
एक अर्थ वाला अटपटा clause — सुंदरता से अधिक परिशुद्धता मायने रखती है।
“Shall” (ordinarily mandatory); “may” is ordinarily discretionary.
“Shall” (सामान्यतः आज्ञापक); “may” सामान्यतः विवेकाधीन।
| Maxim | Meaning | Where it appears |
|---|---|---|
| Consensus ad idem | Agreement as to the same thing | Contract — s.13, definition of consent |
| Qui facit per alium, facit per se | He who acts through another acts himself | Torts — root maxim of vicarious liability |
| Respondeat superior | Let the master answer | Torts — employer liability for employees |
| Volenti non fit injuria | Harm suffered by consent gives no cause of action | Torts — general defence |
| Damnum sine injuria | Damage without legal injury | Torts — not actionable |
| Injuria sine damno | Injury without damage | Torts — actionable |
| Ubi jus ibi remedium | Where there is a right, there is a remedy | Torts — basis of legal remedy |
| Ignorantia juris non excusat | Ignorance of the law excuses no one | Torts and Criminal law |
| Ab initio | From the beginning | Contract — minor’s agreement is void ab initio |
| Vis major | Act of God | Torts — general defence |
| Audi alteram partem | Hear the other side | Natural justice |
| Nemo judex in causa sua | No one may be a judge in his own cause | Natural justice |
ये बारह सूक्तियाँ (maxims) केवल शब्दकोश की प्रविष्टियाँ नहीं — ये संविदा, अपकृत्य और प्रशासनिक विधि के नियम हैं। परीक्षा में इन्हें लैटिन में लिखें, फिर एक पंक्ति में हिंदी/अंग्रेज़ी अर्थ, फिर एक निर्णय।
Volenti non fit injuria — the spectator accepted the ordinary risks of watching.
Volenti non fit injuria — दर्शक ने खेल देखने के सामान्य जोखिम स्वीकार किए थे।
No — damnum sine injuria: loss without infringement of a legal right.
नहीं — damnum sine injuria: हानि है, पर किसी विधिक अधिकार का उल्लंघन नहीं।
Audi alteram partem and nemo judex in causa sua.
Audi alteram partem और nemo judex in causa sua।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Ratio decidendi | The reasoning on which a decision rests — the binding part of a judgment |
| Obiter dictum | A remark made “by the way”; persuasive but not binding |
| Per incuriam | Through lack of care — a judgment given without considering relevant law, so not binding |
| Per curiam | By the court — a decision of the court collectively, not attributed to one judge |
| Res judicata | A matter already judged; it cannot be relitigated |
| Locus standi | The right of a party to appear and be heard |
| Amicus curiae | A friend of the court |
| Ex parte | Proceedings in the absence of the other party |
| Suo motu | On its own motion |
| Coram non judice | Before one who is not a judge |
| Functus officio | No longer having power or jurisdiction |
| Sine die | With no day fixed — adjourned indefinitely |
| Nunc pro tunc | “Now for then” — a ruling applied retroactively to correct an earlier one |
| De novo | Afresh, anew |
किसी निर्णय को पढ़ते समय सबसे पहला प्रश्न: इसका कौन-सा भाग बाध्यकारी है? उत्तर है ratio decidendi। Article 141 के अंतर्गत Supreme Court द्वारा घोषित विधि भारत के सभी न्यायालयों पर बाध्यकारी है, और बड़ी पीठ का निर्णय छोटी पीठ पर।
No — it is obiter dictum, persuasive only.
नहीं — यह obiter dictum है, केवल प्रेरक।
Suo motu cognizance.
Suo motu संज्ञान (स्वप्रेरणा से)।
Article 141.
अनुच्छेद 141।
| Writ | Literal meaning | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Habeas corpus | That you have the body | Requires a detained person to be produced before the court |
| Mandamus | We command | Compels a public authority to perform a public duty |
| Prohibition | To forbid | Stops an inferior court or tribunal from continuing proceedings in excess of jurisdiction |
| Certiorari | To be certified | Quashes an order already made by an inferior court or tribunal without or in excess of jurisdiction |
| Quo warranto | By what authority | Calls on a person to show the authority under which they hold public office |
मौलिक अधिकारों के लिए Supreme Court Article 32 के अंतर्गत और High Court Article 226 के अंतर्गत रिट जारी करते हैं। Article 226 अधिक व्यापक है — यह मौलिक अधिकारों के अतिरिक्त “किसी अन्य प्रयोजन” (अन्य विधिक अधिकारों) के लिए भी उपलब्ध है। Article 32 स्वयं एक मौलिक अधिकार है।
Habeas corpus.
बंदी प्रत्यक्षीकरण (Habeas corpus)।
Prohibition before the decision; certiorari after it.
निर्णय से पहले प्रतिषेध (Prohibition); निर्णय के बाद उत्प्रेषण (Certiorari)।
Article 226: High Courts may issue writs for fundamental rights and “for any other purpose”.
Article 226: High Court मौलिक अधिकारों के अतिरिक्त “किसी अन्य प्रयोजन” के लिए भी रिट जारी कर सकते हैं।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Actus reus | The guilty act — the physical element of a crime |
| Mens rea | The guilty mind — the mental element |
| Onus probandi | Burden of proof |
| Actori incumbit onus probandi | The burden of proof lies on the plaintiff |
| Prima facie | On the face of it; at first sight |
| Res ipsa loquitur | The thing speaks for itself |
| Factum probans | A relevant fact — one that helps prove another fact |
| Doli incapax | Incapable of crime |
| Alibi | Elsewhere — that the accused was at another place |
| Nemo moriturus praesumitur mentire | No one at the point of death is presumed to lie — the basis of a dying declaration |
| Nemo bis punitur pro eodem delicto | No one may be punished twice for the same offence — double jeopardy |
आपराधिक दायित्व का मूल सूत्र: Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea — केवल कृत्य किसी को दोषी नहीं बनाता, जब तक मन भी दोषी न हो।
Res ipsa loquitur.
Res ipsa loquitur — घटना स्वयं बोलती है।
Article 20(2) — nemo bis punitur.
अनुच्छेद 20(2) — nemo bis punitur।
Because of nemo moriturus praesumitur mentire — a dying person is presumed not to lie.
Nemo moriturus praesumitur mentire — मरणासन्न व्यक्ति के झूठ न बोलने की उपधारणा।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Bona fide / bona fides | In good faith / honest purpose |
| Mala fide | In bad faith |
| Uberrima fides | Utmost good faith — the standard in insurance contracts |
| Malum in se | Wrong in itself — e.g. murder, theft, wrong regardless of any statute |
| Malum prohibitum | Wrong only because prohibited by law, not inherently immoral |
| Fraus est celare fraudem | It is a fraud to conceal a fraud |
| Contra bonos mores | Against good morals |
कुछ कृत्य स्वभावतः गलत हैं, कुछ केवल इसलिए कि कानून ने उन्हें निषिद्ध किया है। और कई अनुबंधों में ईमानदारी का स्तर सामान्य से कहीं ऊँचा अपेक्षित है।
Malum prohibitum — wrong because the law forbids it.
Malum prohibitum — गलत इसलिए क्योंकि कानून मना करता है।
Uberrima fides — utmost good faith.
Uberrima fides — परम सद्भाव।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Jus in rem | A right against the world at large |
| Jus in personam | A right against a specific person |
| Jus naturale | Natural law — law based on fundamental ideas of right and wrong |
| Jus scriptum / jus non scriptum | Written law / customary, unwritten law |
| Jus soli / jus sanguinis | Citizenship by place of birth / by descent |
| Pacta sunt servanda | Agreements must be kept; treaties bind and must be performed in good faith |
| Quantum meruit | What one has earned — a reasonable sum for work where no amount was fixed |
| Quid pro quo | Something for something |
| Qui sentit commodum, sentire debet et onus | He who takes the benefit must also bear the burden |
| Aequitas legem sequitur | Equity follows the law |
| Aequitas nunquam contravenit legem | Equity never contradicts the law |
| Salus populi est suprema lex | The welfare of the people is the supreme law |
| Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium | It is in the interest of the State that litigation should have an end |
| De minimis non curat lex | The law does not concern itself with trifles |
| Causa proxima, non remota spectatur | The immediate, not the remote, cause is considered |
| Actio personalis moritur cum persona | A personal action dies with the person |
| Caveat emptor / caveat venditor | Let the buyer beware / let the seller beware |
“अधिकार किसके विरुद्ध है?” — यह प्रश्न अपकृत्य और संविदा को अलग करता है। अपकृत्य jus in rem (सारे संसार के विरुद्ध) की रक्षा करता है; संविदा jus in personam (किसी विशेष व्यक्ति के विरुद्ध) की।
Quantum meruit — a reasonable sum for work done.
Quantum meruit — किए गए कार्य का उचित मूल्य।
Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium.
Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium — मुकदमेबाज़ी का अंत राज्य हित में।
In rem — good against the whole world.
In rem — सारे संसार के विरुद्ध।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Inter alia | Among other things |
| Mutatis mutandis | With the necessary changes having been made |
| Ad hoc | For this purpose only |
| Ad valorem | By the value — e.g. ad valorem duty |
| Pari passu | With equal step — equal and proportionate treatment |
| Per se | By itself |
| Ipso facto | By the mere fact |
| De facto / de jure | In fact / by law |
| Status quo | The state of things as they are |
| Sine qua non | An indispensable condition |
| Ex gratia | As a favour, not as of legal right |
| Ex officio | By virtue of an office held |
| Ex post facto | After the fact |
| A fortiori | With even stronger reason |
| Ad idem | Of the same mind |
| Inter vivos | Between living persons — as opposed to a legacy |
| Donatio mortis causa | A gift made in contemplation of imminent death |
| Bona vacantia | Goods without an owner |
ये वाक्यांश आदेशों, अनुबंधों और अधिसूचनाओं में रोज़ दिखते हैं। अंग्रेज़ी में ड्राफ़्टिंग करते समय इन्हें लैटिन में ही लिखें — इनका अर्थ स्थापित है।
mutatis mutandis.
mutatis mutandis — आवश्यक परिवर्तनों सहित।
An ex gratia payment.
Ex gratia (अनुग्रह) भुगतान।
Ex post facto laws — punishing an act that was not an offence when done.
Ex post facto विधियाँ — ऐसे कृत्य को दंडित करना जो करते समय अपराध नहीं था।
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Abrogate | To formally repeal, abolish or annul a law, right or agreement |
| Abuse of process | Misusing legal procedure for an improper purpose, distinct from malicious prosecution |
| Adjudication | Formal resolution of a dispute by a court or tribunal, producing a binding decision |
| Admission | A statement by a party acknowledging the truth of a fact, usable as evidence against them |
| Affidavit | A sworn written statement usable as evidence |
| Acquit | To formally clear a defendant of a criminal charge |
| Accomplice | One who knowingly and voluntarily assists another in committing a crime |
| Estoppel | Being prevented from denying a previous statement or position |
| Novation | A new contract agreed by all parties to replace an existing one |
| Waiver | Voluntarily giving up a right or condition |
| Detinue | The tort of wrongfully retaining goods belonging to another |
| Innuendo | Words defamatory because they carry a second, hidden meaning |
| Misnomer | A wrong or inaccurate name or term |
| Nolle prosequi | Formal notice abandoning all or part of a prosecution or suit |
| Additur / remittitur | A court’s power to increase / reduce a damages award as an alternative to a new trial |
| Palimony | Support payable after the breakdown of a non-marital cohabiting relationship |
ये शब्द अंग्रेज़ी में ही प्रयोग होते हैं, पर इनके मानक हिंदी विधिक पर्याय भी जानें — हिंदी माध्यम की परीक्षाओं और न्यायालयी हिंदी में यही चलते हैं। Additur, remittitur और palimony मुख्यतः अमेरिकी प्रयोग हैं।
Estoppel.
विबंध (Estoppel)।
Section 62.
धारा 62।
| Term | Meaning | Hindi |
|---|---|---|
| Concubine | A woman who lives with a man without the benefit of marriage | उपपत्नी |
| Condemnation | Legal process by which a private owner's real property is taken for public use on award of due compensation (in India, compulsory acquisition) | सार्वजनिक उपयोग हेतु सम्पत्ति का अनिवार्य अधिग्रहण |
| Condonation | Defence in a divorce proceeding that the offended spouse expressly or impliedly forgave the offence | क्षमा (वैवाहिक अपराध की) |
Condemnation takes property; condonation forgives an offence. One letter apart, different subjects entirely.
Condemnation सम्पत्ति लेता है; condonation अपराध क्षमा करता है।
Use the institutional login (IP access) at scconline.com. In result lists, check the icons for document type (digest or full judgment), bench strength, and any flag that the judgment has been overruled or affected before you cite it. Bench strength matters: a larger bench binds a smaller one.
scconline.com पर संस्थागत (IP) login से खोजें। उद्धरण से पहले देखें: दस्तावेज़ का प्रकार (digest या पूर्ण निर्णय), पीठ में न्यायाधीशों की संख्या, और कहीं निर्णय overruled तो नहीं। बड़ी पीठ का निर्णय छोटी पीठ पर बाध्यकारी है।
| Old law | Year | Replaced by (in force 1 July 2024) | Deals with |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Penal Code (IPC) | 1860 | Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS) | Crimes and punishments — substantive law |
| Indian Evidence Act (IEA) | 1872 | Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (BSA) | Evidence |
| Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) | 1973 (Act 2 of 1974, in force 1 April 1974) | Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (BNSS) | Procedure — arrest, bail, trial |
Why the CrPC is written “1973/74” in the class notes: the Code is the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, but it was enacted as Act 2 of 1974 and came into force on 1 April 1974.
IPC (1860) → BNS; Evidence Act (1872) → BSA; CrPC (1973) → BNSS — तीनों नए कानून 1 जुलाई 2024 से लागू। CrPC का नाम 1973 है, पर यह 1974 का Act 2 है और 1 अप्रैल 1974 से लागू हुआ।
| Judge | Remember for | Cases worth reading |
|---|---|---|
| Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer | “Bail, not jail”; reformative approach to punishment; humane procedure | State of Rajasthan v. Balchand, (1977) 4 SCC 308; Mohammad Giasuddin v. State of A.P., (1977) 3 SCC 287 |
| Justice P.N. Bhagwati | Public interest litigation and relaxed locus standi; expansion of Art. 21; absolute liability | S.P. Gupta v. Union of India, 1981 Supp SCC 87; Hussainara Khatoon (1979); M.C. Mehta (1987); dissent in Bachan Singh (1980) |
“Every saint has a past, every sinner has a future.” The line is Oscar Wilde's; Krishna Iyer J. used it to explain the reformative theory of punishment. “Bail is the rule, jail the exception” is the popular summary of his approach in Balchand: liberty is the default before conviction, and refusal of bail needs reasons.
“हर संत का एक अतीत होता है, हर अपराधी का एक भविष्य।” यह पंक्ति Oscar Wilde की है; Justice Krishna Iyer ने इसे दंड के सुधारात्मक सिद्धांत के लिए प्रयोग किया। “ज़मानत नियम है, जेल अपवाद” — Balchand (1977) में उनके दृष्टिकोण का सार: दोषसिद्धि से पहले स्वतंत्रता सामान्य स्थिति है।
| Topic · विषय | Old | New |
|---|---|---|
| Murder · हत्या (दंड) | IPC s.302 | BNS s.103 |
| Rape · बलात्संग (दंड) | IPC s.376 | BNS s.64 |
| Cruelty by husband · पति द्वारा क्रूरता | IPC s.498A | BNS s.85 |
| Cheating · छल | IPC s.420 | BNS s.318 |
| Private defence · निजी प्रतिरक्षा | IPC ss.96–106 | BNS ss.34–44 |
| Maintenance · भरण-पोषण | CrPC s.125 | BNSS s.144 |
| Anticipatory bail · अग्रिम ज़मानत | CrPC s.438 | BNSS s.482 |
| Dying declaration · मृत्युकालिक कथन | IEA s.32(1) | BSA s.26(a) |
| Electronic records certificate · इलेक्ट्रॉनिक अभिलेख | IEA s.65B | BSA s.63 |
Verify against the bare text on India Code before quoting in an answer · उत्तर में लिखने से पहले India Code पर मूल पाठ से मिलान करें।